International Production and Multinational Enterprise

Question: Examine about the International Production and Multinational Enterprise. Answer: Presentation: Methodology has been confused as a dream or statement of purpose, objectives, vital dangers by numerous associations. Technique is commonly expected in the basic exercises of an association and consequently a necessity of far reaching comprehension of procedure in business the board. The arrangement of a technique is essential for improvement of promising open doors for the association. System of an association gives an away from of the business sectors where the association works, remarkable incentive gave by the organization, assets and capacities just as variables for supporting its offer (Beamish, 2013). In this way food in worldwide markets has prompted introduction towards a few productive techniques, for example, the AAA system. The utilization of the AAA structure is to a great extent worried about the improvement of a promising offer in a worldwide market and continuing it. Key heading towards worldwide worth creation as indicated by the AAA system depends on the components of adjustment, conglomeration and exchange. The three distinct methodologies could be considered as essential parts of procedures for worldwide worth creation. An insignificant worldwide technique would not be adequate to address the necessities in the area of business (Buckley, Burton Mirza, 2016). The adjustment approach includes unmistakable techniques to make an incentive in a worldwide market. Collection approach includes gaining by the economies of scale and degree which is executed regularly utilizing the CAGE structure which depends on social, managerial and monetary total for encouraging worth creation. The methodology of conglomeration is portrayed by restricted effect on nearby responsiveness and could be set up as indicated by geographic and non-geographic settings. Exchange approach depends on the contrasts among districts and uses the idea of buying at lower costs in a particular market and selling at more significant expenses in another market. The CAGE system additio nally applies to Arbitrage approach and subsequently utilizing social, geographic, monetary and managerial abilities for getting an incentive in outside business sectors (Casson, 2013). Use of Ideas The investigation of AAA structure could be applied to the instance of McDonalds which accepted the adjustment way to deal with enter the Indian market. The food of the companys incentive in the sub-landmass was essentially determined by its relationship with nearby business people and presentation of assortment in its items as indicated by the inclinations of the neighborhood clients. Moreover, it was seen that the organization accepted plan adjustment and along these lines McDonalds had the option to diminish the intricacy of gracefully chain the executives. The organization was using the neighborhood flexibly chain for assembling items and thus significant decrease in the expenses of shipping crude materials to the subcontinent was watched. The case of Tesla Motors can be considered for use of the adjustment approach for worldwide worth creation (Dunning, 2012). The companys activities to construct half and half electric vehicles ought to be supplemented with center around explici t markets and client portions. The focal point of the association on explicit client portions which would buy the results of Tesla Motors. The use of center methodology of adjustment for Tesla Motors ought to be coordinated towards nations which favor condition benevolent activities, for example, the half breed electric vehicles gave by the organization (Driffield, Jones Crotty, 2013). Business Mode Innovation Plan of action of an endeavor fills in as the most encouraging asset for the organization to acknowledge improvement and development. The plan of action could be considered as a layout of the methodology followed by an association and by and large alludes to four unmistakable segments, for example, incentive, esteem chain foundation, and worldwide administration model and market cooperation. It has likewise been seen that organizations ought to experience advancement in plan of action creation (Driffield, Jones Crotty, 2013). The fear of the jobs of qualities disciplines and the marker authority in the execution of a plan of action for worldwide procedure is basic. The presentation of conceivable deductions, for example, flexibly chain the board from esteem chain foundation, worldwide administration from the model, is degree for worldwide marking because of market investment and offer as development. Offer of a business represents the essential part of a plan of action. The incentive can be characterized as the companys offer to the clients and bundle of items and administrations close by a total scope of immaterial and substantial advantages gave by an organization to its clients. Market cooperation part of plan of action is dictated by the associations inclinations for explicit markets and client portions, advancement and commercial of incentive just as appropriation techniques (Forsgren Johanson, 2014). Market cooperation is an impressive effect on the distinguishing proof of explicit clients, scope for brand affiliation and connection among business and clients. The worth chain framework delineated in the plan of action of an association alludes to the relationship of the organization with member and accomplice arranges just as applicable assets and abilities required to address the objective markets and bolster the incentive of the items (Wild, Wild Han, 2014). The worth chain foundation is additionally worried about the association of the supporting syste ms and assets and abilities of the association to make a productive open door for esteem creation in the objective market (Jenkins, 2013) s. Worldwide administration model alludes to the methodology followed by an association in its worldwide activities and the essential groupings of worldwide administration model could be checked in the worldwide item divisions and geological organizing of the association. The worth order followed by a business association is reliant on the worth control and worth creation procedure. The regularly received worth trains by associations in their plans of action allude to operational greatness, client closeness and item administration (Verbeke, 2013). Use of Ideas The case of Intel can be practical seen as a usage of successful plan of action for worldwide worth creation. Intel has continued its incentive for clients as practical figuring chips and microchips and it characterizes the reconciliation of item initiative worth order in the plan of action. Intel has consistently set benchmarks in the business of registering with the presentation of items standout in preparing execution than the prior processor structures (Sinkovics et al., 2014). The significant accentuation on innovativeness, speed and cause of inventive arrangements is the key trait of item initiative which ponders the offer of Intel. The instance of British Airways can be considered for the acknowledgment of a plan of action for worldwide worth creation (Kelley Shenkar, 2013). The organization could accept the worth control of operational greatness through improving proficiency and cost in it offers. The current worth chain foundation for British Airways would give suitable chan ces to understand extra worries of wellbeing of travelers and team individuals just as directing business procedures, for example, publicizing, appointments and confirmation strategies. These impromptu creations in the plan of action of the association could encourage suitable chances to continue the serious worldwide market (Sinkovics et al., 2014). References Beamish, P., 2013.Multinational Joint Ventures in Developing Countries (RLE International Business). Routledge. Buckley, P.J., Burton, F. also, Mirza, H. eds., 2016.The methodology and association of universal business. Springer. Casson, M. ed., 2013.The Growth of International Business (RLE International Business). Routledge. Dunning, J.H., 2012.International Production and the Multinational Enterprise (RLE International Business). Routledge. Dunning, J.H., 2013.Multinationals, Technology Competitiveness (RLE International Business)(Vol. 13). Routledge. Driffield, N., Jones, C. also, Crotty, J., 2013. Global business research and dangerous speculations, an investigation of FDI in strife zones.International Business Review,22(1), pp.140-155. Enderwick, P. ed., 2013.Multinational Service Firms (RLE International Business). Routledge. Forsgren, M. what's more, Johanson, J., 2014.Managing systems in universal business. Routledge. Jenkins, R., 2013.Transnational Corporations and Uneven Development (RLE International Business): The Internationalization of Capital and the Third World. Routledge. Kelley, L. what's more, Shenkar, O., 2013.International business in China. Routledge. Sinkovics, R.R., Yamin, M., Nadvi, K. what's more, Zhang, Y., 2014. Rising forces from developing markets? The changing essence of worldwide business.0969-5931,23(4), pp.675-679. Taylor, M. what's more, Thrift, N., 2013.Multinationals and the Restructuring of the World Economy (RLE International Business): The Geography of the Multinationals(Vol. 2). Routledge. Verbeke, A., 2013.International business system. Cambridge University Press. Wild, J., Wild, K.L. what's more, Han, J.C., 2014.International business. Pearson Education Limited.

Ways to Improve Group Productivity within a hospital or medical Research Paper

Approaches to Improve Group Productivity inside a clinic or clinical office - Research Paper Example In breaking down this issues, this paper centers around the branch of admissions,the division of advertising, the branch of social work, and the branch of clinical records which are found in a medical clinic association. This paper gives a clarification on the effect of the issues viable, and recognizes the approaches which directors inside the emergency clinic set up need to establish for motivations behind guaranteeing productivity in meeting the objectives of the medical clinic association. This is in such a case that directors don't create answers for the issues the association faces, odds are high that the medical clinic may neglect to give better human services administrations to its clients. This paper contains proposals ofthe best preparing program that could upgrade bunch profitability. Lorenzi (2004) signifies that preparation is a strategy for constant evaluation, since the clinical staff gets significant abilities that are fundamental to serve the present social insurance needs of the associations clients. This paper has a determination, and it is a synopsis of the primary concerns tended to in it. One of the issues confronting bunch profitability inside the medical clinic set up is the contention that exude from absence of an away from on the job of individuals inside a synergistic gathering. For example, inside the affirmations division of the clinic, there is a gathering that facilitates the confirmation of patients, another gathering readies their affirmation, while another gathering masterminds any booking of a patients affirmation. These are devise jobs inside the affirmation departmentand as a result of an away from on the job of individuals who are in this unit, a contention of jobs radiate. For example, the gathering that facilitates the affirmation of patients is going by a group chief; it is this individual who doles out obligations, contingent upon the current condition. A circumstance emerges when such an individual didn't report for wo rk due to individual or authority issues. Individuals from the gathering will be befuddled in light of the fact that no one will allocate them obligations, prompting every one of them completing assignments that were not implied for them. This in this manner prompts an ascent of contention of jobs, and its outcome is wastefulness in meeting the targets of the affirmations office (Lorenzi, 2005). To enhance this issue, it is significant for the association to build up an arrangement that will manage in relegating jobs to the different individuals from its staff. To viably execute this approach, the association must make an office, whose principle duty is to screen the exhibition of workers corresponding to their particular assignments, and how they contribute in meeting the targets of the association. Another serious issue that emerged from the exploration is absence of a powerful correspondence capacity among the different individuals from various gatherings inside the emergency cli nic association. This issue can influence all the branches of the association, which incorporates the confirmations office, the advertising division, the clinical records office, the support and building office and the branch of social work. This is on the grounds that correspondence is the key that drives the development of any division of an association. For example, the obligations of the branch of advertising are to take care of the issues of out and in patients. In the event that the office needs modernized correspondence devices, for example, PCs, they will be not able to adequately offer this support of their clients (Kongstvedt, 1997).The motivation to this contention is a result of the modernization of the correspondence

Know Money, Win Money! Episode One Credit

Know Money, Win Money! Episode One Credit Know Money, Win Money! Episode One: Credit Know Money, Win Money! Episode One: CreditWe here at the OppLoans Financial Sense Blog want to make sure you have more money in your pockets by any means necessary. Normally that means giving you advice about saving money, but starting today, it also means running around on the street and asking you (or people like you) questions about money, and then giving you money if you get them right.It’s called Know Money, Win Money, and it’s our hot new game show. The first episode is all about credit, and you can check it out right here:The first question we asked was pretty simple: What’s the definition of a credit score?Even though most people have some sense of why their credit score is important, they may not totally realize what it is. Simply put, it’s a measure of your “credit-worthiness,” or how good you are at taking on debt and paying it back. Your credit score determines what kind of interest rate you’ll get on your loans, or if you can qualify for a loan at all.Our n ext question asked was what would be considered a “good credit score.”  If you’re wondering, it’s 680 to 719. Anything more than that and you’re golden but anything less than that well, your interest rates aren’t going to be so hot. Or they’ll be too hot. The point is you’ll have high interest rates. Finally, Most people are aware of the FICO company that creates the most common type of credit score. But we wondered if people knew what the companys name actually stands  for?  For the most part, they did not. And we can’t blame them. Few people do! If you’re wondering, it stands for Fair, Isaac, and Company.So we got to give away money, and teach people about credit. Hopefully next time we’ll run into you!What financial topics would you like us to cover in future episodes of Know Money, Win Money? Let us know! You can email us by clicking here or you can find us on Twitter at @OppLoans.

Descriptive Essay - Original Writing - 1187 Words

Rainbow Dash glanced down at her saddlebag, letting a monotonous sigh as she looked over the bunch of rolled up maps poking out from the sack. With a look of profound determination, she lifted her hoof and knocked on the door. â€Å"This is a public library, ya know. There’s no need to knock,† Twilight said from inside. â€Å"Aha†¦hehe, right†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Rainbow pushed through the Golden Oak Library’s front door and made her way over toward Twilight’s desk, then placed her saddlebag on it. â€Å"What s this about, Dash?† Twilight asked, placing a hoof to her chin, her curiosity at its peak. â€Å"Why did you bring a whole bunch of maps?† â€Å"I, uh†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Rainbow scratched the back of her mane and looked off to one side. I shoulda prepared for this.... â€Å"You all right there, Rainbow Dash? You seem†¦off and you’re acting weird,† Twilight said. â€Å"Yeah, yeah. I actually just wanted to ask you something.† Rainbow slid the bag out of her reach and grabbed the rolled-up scrolls with her teeth, setting them down. She was unrolling them on the desk, unfurling and ridding their creases. â€Å"What the heck is this?† Twilight looked genuinely confused. â€Å"Uh†¦what exactly do you mean?† Rainbow was aimlessly flailing her hooves around, while hovering lowly in the air. â€Å"Are you blind, woman?† â€Å"Oh, don’t patronize me. What in Celestia’s green Earth are you talking about?† Rainbow clapped. â€Å"Yes! Earth! Why the hell is the Earth flat?† Twilight flinched, and it looked like she was going to have a heart attack or seizure, orShow MoreRelatedDescriptive Essay - Original Writing1110 Words   |  5 PagesI don’t know how I got to where I am, but I’m here now, and I have to win if I want to live. I am in a game, and in order to live, I have to escape. That’s the thing, though: I don’t know how to escape. I was running for my life around this old house that looked like it came straight out of a horror movie. I doubled over and held my head in pain as I saw the static, which meant it was coming. I was being chased by what looked like a person but in no way acted like one. Just as it was about to appearRead MoreDescriptive Essay - Original Writing1102 Words   |  5 PagesIt is on days like this when we stop to think about our life. Small drops of rain begin to dapple the cobblestone pavement as people whip out their umbrellas for cover. I continue sauntering down the busy street, relishing the feeling of a light shower. Moving with the mass of pedestrians, I stop at a crosswalk where I wait for the stoplight to turn green. A flower shop employee across the street scurries to bring in the numerous bouquets and close the doors as rain starts rolling down the displayRead MoreDescriptive Essay - Original Writing914 Words   |  4 PagesDreamy I thought. 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To What Extent Did Alexander Ii Deserve His Title of the...

Does Alexander II truly deserve the title of liberator? To liberate is to set free (a group or individual) from legal, social or political restrictions. There is evidence to suggest that he disliked serfdom. Even his father, Nicholas I, believed that serfdom was an â€Å"evil palpable to all,† and Alexander II was certainly even more liberally educated than his father. His arguably most fundamental reform was the emancipation of serfdom in 1861. As he said, â€Å"It is best to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it abolishes itself from below†. This quote demonstrates his realization that reform was needed. Many saw serfdom as Russias biggest handicap in development into a new modern era, to be the equal of other European powers. There†¦show more content†¦Milyutin’s reforms made the army more civilized and efficient-the army was made to be more accommodating for the soldiers with the army methods being made more humane. This meant that training was made more relaxed and corporal punishment was banned. Shorter services meant that the army was no longer seen as a prison life sentence. The success of the reform was due to the efforts of Dmitri Milyutin, not Alexander II, but overall successful nonetheless. Furthermore, the success of the reform was not measured in the number of victories in battle, but the way in whic h it introduced a sense of professionalism and discipline in soldiers. This gave birth to modern military strategies and more effective combat tactics. In 1864, Alexander introduced a modern western-style judicial system based on the French system that was aimed to be â€Å"equal to all our subjects.† The salaries of judges were also increased, making them less likely to accept bribes, thus decreasing corruption. Further reforms included the opening of courts to the public, which drastically increased freedom of expression and opportunities of careers in law. As historian Hugh Seton-Watson argues, â€Å"the court-room was the one place in Russia where real freedom of speech prevailed.† However, the success of these reforms can be questioned as the police of the Third Section could arrest people on demand and political and military cases were soon

Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making Free Essays

Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of world around us. It involves deciding which information notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge. Another definition of perception is â€Å"A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment†. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making or any similar topic only for you Order Now We can summarize the perception with this sentence â€Å"We don’t see the things as they are, we see things as we are†. Why is perception important in the study of Organizational Behaviour? Simply because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. Virtually all management activities rely on perception. In appraising performance, managers use their perceptions of an employee’s behaviour as a basis for evaluation. Factors that influence perception are categorized to three groups; 1)Factors in the perceiver: Attitudes, Motives, Interests, Experience, Expectations 2)Factors in the situation: Time, Work Setting, Social Setting 3)Factors in the target: Novelty, Motion, Sounds, Size, Background, Proximity, Similarity Shortcuts used in judging others; )Selective Perception: a characteristic that make someone stand out in our mind will increase the probability that it will be perceived 2)Halo Effect: drawing a general impression based on a single characteristic 3)Contrast Effects: our reaction is influenced by others we have recently encountered 4)Projection: the tendency to attribute our own characteristics to other people 5)Stereotyping: judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which they belong Attribution in Organizations Attribution simply refers to how a person explains the cause of another’s or his or her own behaviour. Attribution thus is the most relevant application of perception concepts of organizational behaviour-the issue of person perception. The attributions or inferred causes we provide for behaviour have important implications in organizations. In explaining the causes of employee performance, good or bad, we are asked to explain the behaviour that was the basis for the performance. Attribution Theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused: Internally; believed to be under the personal control of the individual Externally; resulting from outside causes. Determinants of Attribution Distinctiveness; whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations. Consensus; if everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way. Consistency; does the person respond the same way over time. Individual Decision Making Individuals in organizations make decisions. That is, they make choices from among two or more alternatives. Decision-making is almost universally defined as choosing between alternatives. Decision-making is a critical activity in the lives of managers. The decisions a manager faces can range from very simple, routine matters for which the manager has an established decision rule(programmed decisions) to new and complex decisions that require creative solutions(non-programmed decisions). Decision-Making Process Managers have to make decisions whether they are simple or extremely complex. Making a good decision is a difficult exercise. It is the product of deliberation, evaluation and thought. To make good decisions, managers should invariably follow a sequential set of steps. 1)recognize the problem and need for a decision 2)identify the objective of the decision 3)gather and evaluate data and diagnose the situation 4)list and evaluate alternatives 5)select the best course of action 6)implement the decision 7)gather feedback 8)follow up How to cite Social Perception, and Attribution, and Individual Decision Making, Essay examples

Making Planned Giving Work For You Essay Example For Students

Making Planned Giving Work For You Essay Making Planned Giving Work For YouPlanned giving strategy tips for every organizationLawrence Henze,J.D.,Managing Director,Blackbaud AnalyticsGolden Age of Philanthropy Americans will transfer at least $41 trillion between 1998-2052,according to a study 1 by theSocial Welfare Research Institute at Boston College.At least $6 trillion of that funding will bebequests to charity,according to authors Paul Schervish and John Havens,who wrote that agolden age of philanthropy is dawning.With so many philanthropic dollars up for grabs,nonpro #64257;ts need to position themselves tocapture a share of the wealth.Research from the National Committee on Planned Giving 2 showsthat although 42 percent of Americans have wills,only about nine percent have included charities. But once charities are included,they stay:97 percent said they had not revoked a charitableprovision.An additional 14 percent of those surveyed said they had considered including acharitable bequest in their wills even though no nonpro #64257;t has asked them to do so.This leavesa largely untapped market. About Planned GivingPlanned giving,once called deferred giving,refers to any charitable gift that requires morethought and planning to execute than the average donation.Planned giving has traditionally beende #64257;ned as the gift that an individual makes near the end of his or her lifetime.There are manykinds of planned gifts,from simple bequests in a will or an estate plan,to annuities,charitableremainder trusts,charitable lead trusts,pooled income,life insurance and life estates. Nonpro #64257;ts often have trouble securing planned gifts.Why?The answer generally boils down tofour basic factors:targeting the wrong prospects,sending the wrong appeal,asking too late andsoliciting planned gift prospects for major gifts instead so the organization can get the moneymore quickly. Many charities assume that their major gift donors will be their best prospects for planned gifts. When these solicitations fail,organizations are left with the impression that planned giving isjust not right for them.Other organizations send broad-based planned giving mailings to olderWhite PaperExecutive SummaryDeveloping a successful planned giving program can be a complex undertaking.But it is one that is well worth the trouble. Extensive research has shown that planned giving is about lifestyles and loyalty,not wealth.Many organizations still think theyhave to #64257;nd the millionaires in their database to secure planned gifts.The truth:everyone in your annual fund program hasthe potential to be a planned giver.This means you have more control over the process than you think.Equipped with solidinformation and the right marketing strategy,your organization can build a successful planned giving program. Making Planned Giving Work for You1ContentsGolden Age of Philanthropy 1About Planned Giving .1What Makes a Planned Gift Donor 2Using Research to IdentifyYour Best Prospects ..3Using Marketing to Reach Out toYour Best Prospects ..4Conclusion 5Appendix A:Types of Planned Gifts ..61 Millionaires and the Millennium:NewEstimates of the Forthcoming Wealth Transferand the Prospects for a Golden Age ofPhilanthropy ,by Paul G.Schervish and JohnJ.Havens.Social Welfare Research Institute,Boston College,Boston,MA,October 1999. 2 Planned Giving in the United States 2000:A Survey of Donors .National Committee onPlanned Giving.

The Existence of Audit Expectation Gap Essay Example

The Existence of Audit Expectation Gap Essay The study investigates the existence of audit expectation gap in relation to society’s unreasonable expectations out of auditing in Bangladesh. This also identified the effects of auditing knowledge on the gap. Among all the classes of our society the accounting graduates are expected to have more knowledge on auditing, who represented 60% proxy of the users.For the purpose of the study, the four groups who are chosen as sample users are: (1) General investors (naive) (2) Students not completing any audit course (3) Students completing two (2) courses (Audits III) (IV) Articled students either level I or level II. The questionnaire comprised of two parts, were sent regarding three aspects: audit liability, audit reliability and materiality of audit opinion. It is found that the respondent who are closer to auditing concepts expect reasonably out of the auditors than the others. The knowledge in the respective fields affected the expectations both positively and negatively.Keyw ords: Expectation gap; audit liability; audit reliability; materiality of audit opinion; audit knowledge. Introduction: â€Å"Auditing is the accumulation and evaluation of evidence about information to determine and report on the degree of correspondence between the information and established criteria: Auditing should be done by a competent and independent third person† (Arens and Loebbecke 1988). The auditor in an audit opinion, certifies that the financial statements represent a true and fair view and are prepared in accordance with GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principle) followed by the industry.The collapse of Lehman Brothers, an American bank with $691 billion in 15th September of 2008 along with subsequent bankruptcy of Washington Mutual Bank [$327. 9 billion] in September 26, 2008; General Motor [$91 billion] and CIT Group [$71 billion] in 2009 put the auditing profession and auditing itself into a severe challenge. Auditors’ prudent person concept or u nderperformance of the auditors and society’s over expectation individually or simultaneously result into audit expectation gap. Objectives of the Study Regarding Perpetual Expectation Gap: Expectation Gap was termed by Liggio in 1974 for the first time.Since then it is the significant differences regarding perceived materiality level between auditors and users of financial statements. The AICPA acknowledged the fact that -‘after considerable study of available evidence’ that ‘such a gap does exist’ (Cohen commission Report, AICPA 1978). From the subsequent definition provided by Arrington et al (1983), Monroe and Woodcliff 1993, the two major component was identified by Porter (1983 and 1993): (i)’reasonableness gap’ and (ii)’performance gap’.Reasonableness gap is the difference between what the society does expect the auditors to achieve and what they can reasonably expect to accomplish. Thus point of unreasonable expect ation comes. Performance gap is the difference between the responsibilities society reasonably expects out of audit and auditors’ performance. These gap widens as the role of audit increases. Now this study proceeds to answer the questions- who are the users feeling their expectations are not met and are those expectations reasonable in Bangladesh perspective? The study further tended to discover the impact of audit knowledge in reducing or increasing the gap.It is evident that more knowledgeable the users the closer gap. Reasonably naive investors are expected to seek more from audit report. Literature Review: From the birth of expectation gap, several studies have been conducted by the concerned specialists around the world. The findings were also centered to perpetual expectation gap however this was wider in some cases. In 1977, Baron et al investigated the differences in perceptions between auditors users of financial statement regarding auditor’s fraud detection duties revealed significant differences.In 1988, low et al conducted a study on audit expectation gap found difference in the area of fraud prevention, guaranteeing the accuracy of the financial statements, effective use of government funds management efficiency. In1992 1993, Humphery et al conducted a study regarding auditors’ role through a series of unstructured interviews, questionnaires mini case studies revealed insignificant differences audit functions but significant differences in regard to role of auditors.In June 2004, Javed Siddiqui Taslima Nasreen conducted a study â€Å"Audit expectation gap in Bangladesh: Perceptual differences between Accounting professionals students† and found a significant audit expectation gap. (Journal of Business Studies, University of Dhaka) In December 2004 the above specialist along with Al-amin conducted another study named â€Å"The Presence of a Reasonableness Gap? Students’ Perceptions Regarding Audit and t he Role of Audit Education in Bangladesh† (Journal of Business Studies,Vol. xxv, No. 2, December2004) and concluded somehow differently like –Knowledgeable students expected more unreasonably out of auditing.Methodology of the study: For the purpose of the study, the questionnaire method was applied . The questionnaire method despite its inherent shortcomings chosen appropriate for this study. Here four groups were selected. 20 questionnaires were sent to investors who are in general naive. Similar questionnaires were sent to 10 professionals who are under knowledge or Application level, to 10 students of Dept. of Accounting Information Systems (AIS), University of Dhaka (DU) who have just completed two Audit courses and another 10 questionnaires were sent to students who have no idea under same discipline.The issue of perceptions regarding audit is about measuring attitudes. For the purpose of this study, the seven-point Likert scale was used. Prior studies have used t he Likert scale for measuring the audit expectation gap in different countries (for example Schelluch 1996; Best et al 2001 etc. ) The response scale used for this study was- 1. Strongly agree 2. Moderately agree 3. Slightly agree 4. No opinion 5. Slightly disagree 6. Moderately disagree 7. Strongly disagree Strongly agree Strongly disagree 1. An auditor is a watchdog, not a bloodhound. 1234567 2.Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 1234567 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. 1234567 4. Auditing exists only because of legal binding. 1234567 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control1234567 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. 1234567 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 1234567 8. Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misstatements in financial statements. 1234567 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 234567 10. The auditor a grees with the accounting policies of the entity. 1234567 Analysis and Findings: Survey Analysis: Assessment Point-1: â€Å"The auditor is a watchdog, not a bloodhound† ‘Watchdog means a person or a group of people whose job is to check that companies are not doing anything illegal or ignoring people’s rights’ (www. oup. com) Bloodhound means person or group of people who find any inconsistency regarding the concerned areas. The BSAs contain objectives, requirements application and other explanatory material that are designed to support the auditor in obtaining reasonable assurance.The BSAs require that the auditor exercise professional judgment and maintain professional skepticism throughout the planning and performance of the audit among other things: ? Identify and assess risks of material misstatement, whether due to fraud error, based on an understanding of the entity its environment, including the entity’s internal control. ?Obtain suffici ent appropriate audit evidence about whether material misstatement exists, through designing and implementing appropriate responses to the assessed risks. From an opinion on the financial statements based on conclusions drawn from the audit evidence obtained. (BSA 200; Para-7) Therefore it is evident that this statement contributes to gap between auditors users of financial statement. Assessment Point-2: The Auditors are responsible for Audit failure, not for audit risk. Audit failure occurs when the auditor issues an erroneous audit opinion as the result of an underlying failure to comply with the requirements of generally accepted auditing standards (GAAS).Audit risk represents the risk that the auditor will conclude that the financial statements are fairly stated and an unqualified opinion can be issued when, in fact, they are materially misstated. Because auditors are able to gather evidence only on a test basis detecting well-concealed frauds can be extremely difficult, there is always some risk that the auditor will not uncover a uncover a material fraud even though the auditor complied with GAAS. (Arens Loebbecke) So, the statement affects audit expectations gap. Assessment Point-3: ‘The auditor is responsible for detecting all the fraud’.BSA 200, â€Å"Objective and General Principles Governing and Audit of Financial Statements,† clearly states the objectives of an audit- The objective of an audit of financial statements is to enable the auditor to express an opinion whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an identified financial reporting framework. An audit conducted in accordance with BSAs is designed to provide reasonable assurance that the financial statements taken as a whole are free from material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error. (Paragraph 2, BSA 200)Assessment Point-4: â€Å"Audit exists only because of legal bindings†. Section 210 of the Company A ct, 1994 describes- ‘Every company shall, at each annual general meeting appoint an auditor or auditors to hold office from the conclusion of that meeting until the next annual general meeting and shall within seven days of the appointment, give intimation thereof to every auditor so appointed: Provided that, no person can be appointed auditor of any company unless his written consent has been obtained prior to such appointment or re-appointment. ’ The section seeks for statutory audit that must be complied.A twenty four (24) years study of Wanda A. Wallace on â€Å"The economic role of the Audit in free regulated market: A look back A look forward†, revealed that beyond legal requirement, the audit is very much significant. She clarified her argument from three (3) points of view- i) Stewardship hypothesis or Agency theory ii) Information Hypothesis iii) Insurance Hypothesis. Still 77% of the companies audit their financial statements. So it is expected to au dit financial statements beyond legal bindings. Assessment Point-5: ‘The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control structure of the entity. â€Å"Internal control system† means all the policies and procedures (internal controls) adopted by the management of an entity to assist in achieving management’s objective of ensuring, as far as practicable, the orderly and efficient conduct of its business, including adherence to management policies, the safeguarding of asset , the prevention and detection of fraud and error ,the accuracy and completeness of the accounting records, and the timely preparation of reliable financial information (BSA 400). However, during the course of the audit, the auditor has to assess the entity’s internal control system in order to identify audit risk.Assessment Point-6: ‘The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. ’ It has been made clear that it is not the responsibility of the auditor to prepare or to maintain the clients’ accounts. The audit report is also required to contain a paragraph specifying the responsibilities of the auditors-The report should include a statement that the financial statements are the responsibility of the entity’s management and a statement that the responsibility of the auditor is to express an opinion on the financial statements based on the audit (BSA700).Therefore, it affects the expectation gap as from naive point of view the statement seems accurate. Assessment Point-7: ‘The auditor is unbiased and objective. ’ Paragraph 1. 1 of the Code of Professional Ethics (2001) states – A professional accountant should be fair and should not allow prejudice or bias, conflict of interest or influence of others to override objectivity. Therefore, a society should reasonably expect the auditor to be unbiased objectivity. Assessment Point-8: ‘Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misst atement in financial statements. The primary objective of audit is to draw a conclusion on the fairness of the Financial Statements. The secondary objective is to detect errors and frauds. (BSA 200) The objective of an audit of financial statements is to enable the auditor to express an opinion as to whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an applicable financial reporting framework. The form the audit conclusion takes is that auditors state whether the financial statement give a true and fair view. This is an expression of reasonable assurance. ICAB Manual) BSA 200, specifying the objectives of audit clearly mentions that the auditors only provide reasonable assurance and not absolute assurance regarding the absence of material misstatements. Assessment point 9: ‘The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. ’ When the auditors express an opinion, they only guarantee the absence of material misstatements and the conformance with accepted accounting practices. However, this is not an assurance regarding the future or current performance of the entity.As stated in BSA 200 Although the auditor’s opinion enhances the credibility of the financial statements, the user cannot assume that the opinion is an assurance as to the future viability of the entity nor the efficiency or effectiveness with which management has conducted the affairs of the entity. Assessment point 10: ‘The auditor agrees with the accounting policies of the entity. ’ As auditors provide opinion regarding true and fair representation of financial statements and therefore issue four types of audit report-(i) Standard unqualified Audit Report (ii) unqualified Audit Report (iii)Adverse Audit Report and (iv) No Report.In first and second cases the auditors agree with the accounting policies of the entity. Assessment point-11: ‘What do you expect from audit report? ’ Na ive (general) investors expect:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Professional under level i and level ii expect :†¦. Findings of the study: Table-1: Responses of naive (general) investors. Assessment pointsReasonableness scoreMeanDeviation 1. An auditor is a watchdog, not a bloodhound. 7. 002. 724. 28 2. Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 7. 004. 442. 56 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. . 004. 122. 88 4. Auditing exists only because of legal binding. 7. 006. 030. 97 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control7. 005. 361. 64 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. 7. 005. 571. 43 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 7. 005. 681. 32 8. Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misstatements in financial statements. 7. 005. 231. 77 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 7. 006. 800. 20 10.The auditor agrees with the account ing policies of the entity. 7. 004. 392. 61 The table shows significant difference in the assessment point no: 1, 2,3,10. It reveals that naive investors seek or do believe auditor makes way for their decisions, i ,e; the general investors rely much on the auditors’ decision not critically analyzing the opinion but from a naive point of view. Table 2: Responses of Students not completing any audit course. Assessment pointsReasonableness scoreMeanDeviation 1. An auditor is a watchdog not a bloodhound. 7. 004. 092. 91 2.Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 7. 003. 193. 81 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. 7. 004. 922. 08 4. Auditing exists only because of legal binding. 7. 003. 773. 33 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control7. 005. 661. 44 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. 7. 006. 570. 43 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 7. 003. 923. 08 8. Auditor should provide absolute assura nce about the material misstatements in financial statements. . 002. 414. 59 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 7. 004. 492. 51 10. The auditor agrees with the accounting policies of the entity. 7. 004. 042. 96 The table shows that statistically significant differences exist from the view point of students having no audit idea in terms of the assessment point no: 2,3,4,8. It indicates that they expect unreasonably from the auditors regarding their responsibilities of detecting and preventing all frauds and also auditors’ agreement with the entity’s accounting policies.Table 3: Responses of Students completing two (2) courses (Audits III). Assessment pointsReasonableness scoreMeanDeviation 1. An auditor is a watchdog not a bloodhound. 7. 005. 641. 36 2. Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 7. 004. 982. 02 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. 7. 003. 873. 13 4. Auditing exists only b ecause of legal binding. 7. 005. 111. 89 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control7. 004. 892. 11 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. . 006. 010. 99 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 7. 004. 922. 08 8. Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misstatements in financial statements. 7. 004. 592. 41 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 7. 002. 594. 41 10. The auditor agrees with the accounting policies of the entity. 7. 005. 581. 42 Table 3 presents the study results out of students who completed two audit courses. Significant gap was found in the point that audit report provides prediction of future performances of any entity.Again in detecting and preventing all fraud of any entity. In respect of some of the six audit threats, the auditors’ objectivity and neutrality was questioned resulting in some expectation gap. Table 4: Responses of Articled students either level I or level II. Assessment pointsReasonableness scoreMeanDeviation 1. An auditor is a watchdog not a bloodhound. 7. 006. 810. 19 2. Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 7. 006. 800. 20 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. 7. 002. 024. 98 4. Auditing exists only because of legal binding. . 005. 241. 76 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control7. 005. 911. 09 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. 7. 000. 896. 11 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 7. 006. 870. 13 8. Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misstatements in financial statements. 7. 001. 315. 69 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 7. 004. 812. 19 10. The auditor agrees with the accounting policies of the entity. 7. 002. 114. 89The table shows the survey results from professional students who are from level I and level II of professional accountancy. He re the respondents were in line to set a expectation ceiling. Table -5: Showing the deviations between four respondent groups. Assessment pointsDeviation Table-1Deviation Table-2Deviation Table-3Deviation Table-4 1. An auditor is a watchdog not a bloodhound. 4. 282. 911. 360. 19 2. Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 2. 563. 812. 020. 20 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. 2. 882. 083. 134. 98 4. Auditing exists only because of legal binding. . 973. 331. 891. 76 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control1. 641. 442. 111. 09 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. 1. 430. 430. 996. 11 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 1. 323. 082. 080. 13 8. Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misstatements in financial statements. 1. 774. 592. 415. 69 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 0. 202. 514. 412. 19 10. The auditor agrees with th e accounting policies of the entity. 2. 612. 961. 424. 89We the group ‘CRYSTAL HEART’ conducted this study to address whether the perpetual audit expectation gap between the auditors and the users of financial statements is reasonable and how audit knowledge provided by Dept. of Accounting and Information Systems of University of Dhaka affected this gap. The study were mainly concentrated on identifying audit expectation gap in the areas of audit liability of the auditors, audit reliability from the viewpoint of naive (general) investors, students who have no audit knowledge or have taken at least two audit courses and professionals and materiality of audit report to them.The study revealed the presence of audit expectation gap in Bangladesh. In the area of auditors’ responsibilities the naive (general) investors putting the audit knowledge less students second in row expected much more i,e; unreasonably out of the auditors. The professionals’ responses in dicated their responsibilities were defined in different standards. Another area of this study regarding audit reliability showed a wide gap from each of the four (4) respondent groups. As the auditors work on sampling base, and audit risk is subject to well-organized fraud from the past if the management.Also self-interest threat, review threats are still considerable, the gap in the sense of reliability comprised of a big portion. The other sector of the survey- audit report’s materiality revealed that the decision makers out of the society did not depend much on audit report i,e; the majority portion lacks analysis ability who constitute the expectation floor much away from the ceiling set by the audit assurance providers. Although almost significant portion of respondent considered audit report’s materiality contributing to widen the gap.We also found knowledge on auditing helps in some regard but not to the extent that professionals considered. Conclusion: The stu dy attempted on addressing audit expectation gap in Bangladesh. Further, it assessed whether and how much knowledge on the concerned field affects this gap. The students of University of Dhaka under Dept. of Accounting Information Systems and students under ICAB were proxied on behalf of the users, on the presumption that they are most knowledgeable among the society.The findings of the study reveals the existence of expectation gap, some how it is wider in some aspects and predict a much more gap in terms of the people of the society. It also indicated that so far the students go away from their courses they merge gradually with the general people that predict future expectation gap to be wider. So, future studies should concentrate on clarifying the riskiness of audit by identifying clear sectors of audit expectation gap. The Existence of Audit Expectation Gap Essay Example The Existence of Audit Expectation Gap Essay The study investigates the existence of audit expectation gap in relation to society’s unreasonable expectations out of auditing in Bangladesh. This also identified the effects of auditing knowledge on the gap. Among all the classes of our society the accounting graduates are expected to have more knowledge on auditing, who represented 60% proxy of the users.For the purpose of the study, the four groups who are chosen as sample users are: (1) General investors (naive) (2) Students not completing any audit course (3) Students completing two (2) courses (Audits III) (IV) Articled students either level I or level II. The questionnaire comprised of two parts, were sent regarding three aspects: audit liability, audit reliability and materiality of audit opinion. It is found that the respondent who are closer to auditing concepts expect reasonably out of the auditors than the others. The knowledge in the respective fields affected the expectations both positively and negatively.Keyw ords: Expectation gap; audit liability; audit reliability; materiality of audit opinion; audit knowledge. Introduction: â€Å"Auditing is the accumulation and evaluation of evidence about information to determine and report on the degree of correspondence between the information and established criteria: Auditing should be done by a competent and independent third person† (Arens and Loebbecke 1988). The auditor in an audit opinion, certifies that the financial statements represent a true and fair view and are prepared in accordance with GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principle) followed by the industry.The collapse of Lehman Brothers, an American bank with $691 billion in 15th September of 2008 along with subsequent bankruptcy of Washington Mutual Bank [$327. 9 billion] in September 26, 2008; General Motor [$91 billion] and CIT Group [$71 billion] in 2009 put the auditing profession and auditing itself into a severe challenge. Auditors’ prudent person concept or u nderperformance of the auditors and society’s over expectation individually or simultaneously result into audit expectation gap. Objectives of the Study Regarding Perpetual Expectation Gap: Expectation Gap was termed by Liggio in 1974 for the first time.Since then it is the significant differences regarding perceived materiality level between auditors and users of financial statements. The AICPA acknowledged the fact that -‘after considerable study of available evidence’ that ‘such a gap does exist’ (Cohen commission Report, AICPA 1978). From the subsequent definition provided by Arrington et al (1983), Monroe and Woodcliff 1993, the two major component was identified by Porter (1983 and 1993): (i)’reasonableness gap’ and (ii)’performance gap’.Reasonableness gap is the difference between what the society does expect the auditors to achieve and what they can reasonably expect to accomplish. Thus point of unreasonable expect ation comes. Performance gap is the difference between the responsibilities society reasonably expects out of audit and auditors’ performance. These gap widens as the role of audit increases. Now this study proceeds to answer the questions- who are the users feeling their expectations are not met and are those expectations reasonable in Bangladesh perspective? The study further tended to discover the impact of audit knowledge in reducing or increasing the gap.It is evident that more knowledgeable the users the closer gap. Reasonably naive investors are expected to seek more from audit report. Literature Review: From the birth of expectation gap, several studies have been conducted by the concerned specialists around the world. The findings were also centered to perpetual expectation gap however this was wider in some cases. In 1977, Baron et al investigated the differences in perceptions between auditors users of financial statement regarding auditor’s fraud detection duties revealed significant differences.In 1988, low et al conducted a study on audit expectation gap found difference in the area of fraud prevention, guaranteeing the accuracy of the financial statements, effective use of government funds management efficiency. In1992 1993, Humphery et al conducted a study regarding auditors’ role through a series of unstructured interviews, questionnaires mini case studies revealed insignificant differences audit functions but significant differences in regard to role of auditors.In June 2004, Javed Siddiqui Taslima Nasreen conducted a study â€Å"Audit expectation gap in Bangladesh: Perceptual differences between Accounting professionals students† and found a significant audit expectation gap. (Journal of Business Studies, University of Dhaka) In December 2004 the above specialist along with Al-amin conducted another study named â€Å"The Presence of a Reasonableness Gap? Students’ Perceptions Regarding Audit and t he Role of Audit Education in Bangladesh† (Journal of Business Studies,Vol. xxv, No. 2, December2004) and concluded somehow differently like –Knowledgeable students expected more unreasonably out of auditing.Methodology of the study: For the purpose of the study, the questionnaire method was applied . The questionnaire method despite its inherent shortcomings chosen appropriate for this study. Here four groups were selected. 20 questionnaires were sent to investors who are in general naive. Similar questionnaires were sent to 10 professionals who are under knowledge or Application level, to 10 students of Dept. of Accounting Information Systems (AIS), University of Dhaka (DU) who have just completed two Audit courses and another 10 questionnaires were sent to students who have no idea under same discipline.The issue of perceptions regarding audit is about measuring attitudes. For the purpose of this study, the seven-point Likert scale was used. Prior studies have used t he Likert scale for measuring the audit expectation gap in different countries (for example Schelluch 1996; Best et al 2001 etc. ) The response scale used for this study was- 1. Strongly agree 2. Moderately agree 3. Slightly agree 4. No opinion 5. Slightly disagree 6. Moderately disagree 7. Strongly disagree Strongly agree Strongly disagree 1. An auditor is a watchdog, not a bloodhound. 1234567 2.Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 1234567 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. 1234567 4. Auditing exists only because of legal binding. 1234567 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control1234567 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. 1234567 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 1234567 8. Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misstatements in financial statements. 1234567 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 234567 10. The auditor a grees with the accounting policies of the entity. 1234567 Analysis and Findings: Survey Analysis: Assessment Point-1: â€Å"The auditor is a watchdog, not a bloodhound† ‘Watchdog means a person or a group of people whose job is to check that companies are not doing anything illegal or ignoring people’s rights’ (www. oup. com) Bloodhound means person or group of people who find any inconsistency regarding the concerned areas. The BSAs contain objectives, requirements application and other explanatory material that are designed to support the auditor in obtaining reasonable assurance.The BSAs require that the auditor exercise professional judgment and maintain professional skepticism throughout the planning and performance of the audit among other things: ? Identify and assess risks of material misstatement, whether due to fraud error, based on an understanding of the entity its environment, including the entity’s internal control. ?Obtain suffici ent appropriate audit evidence about whether material misstatement exists, through designing and implementing appropriate responses to the assessed risks. From an opinion on the financial statements based on conclusions drawn from the audit evidence obtained. (BSA 200; Para-7) Therefore it is evident that this statement contributes to gap between auditors users of financial statement. Assessment Point-2: The Auditors are responsible for Audit failure, not for audit risk. Audit failure occurs when the auditor issues an erroneous audit opinion as the result of an underlying failure to comply with the requirements of generally accepted auditing standards (GAAS).Audit risk represents the risk that the auditor will conclude that the financial statements are fairly stated and an unqualified opinion can be issued when, in fact, they are materially misstated. Because auditors are able to gather evidence only on a test basis detecting well-concealed frauds can be extremely difficult, there is always some risk that the auditor will not uncover a uncover a material fraud even though the auditor complied with GAAS. (Arens Loebbecke) So, the statement affects audit expectations gap. Assessment Point-3: ‘The auditor is responsible for detecting all the fraud’.BSA 200, â€Å"Objective and General Principles Governing and Audit of Financial Statements,† clearly states the objectives of an audit- The objective of an audit of financial statements is to enable the auditor to express an opinion whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an identified financial reporting framework. An audit conducted in accordance with BSAs is designed to provide reasonable assurance that the financial statements taken as a whole are free from material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error. (Paragraph 2, BSA 200)Assessment Point-4: â€Å"Audit exists only because of legal bindings†. Section 210 of the Company A ct, 1994 describes- ‘Every company shall, at each annual general meeting appoint an auditor or auditors to hold office from the conclusion of that meeting until the next annual general meeting and shall within seven days of the appointment, give intimation thereof to every auditor so appointed: Provided that, no person can be appointed auditor of any company unless his written consent has been obtained prior to such appointment or re-appointment. ’ The section seeks for statutory audit that must be complied.A twenty four (24) years study of Wanda A. Wallace on â€Å"The economic role of the Audit in free regulated market: A look back A look forward†, revealed that beyond legal requirement, the audit is very much significant. She clarified her argument from three (3) points of view- i) Stewardship hypothesis or Agency theory ii) Information Hypothesis iii) Insurance Hypothesis. Still 77% of the companies audit their financial statements. So it is expected to au dit financial statements beyond legal bindings. Assessment Point-5: ‘The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control structure of the entity. â€Å"Internal control system† means all the policies and procedures (internal controls) adopted by the management of an entity to assist in achieving management’s objective of ensuring, as far as practicable, the orderly and efficient conduct of its business, including adherence to management policies, the safeguarding of asset , the prevention and detection of fraud and error ,the accuracy and completeness of the accounting records, and the timely preparation of reliable financial information (BSA 400). However, during the course of the audit, the auditor has to assess the entity’s internal control system in order to identify audit risk.Assessment Point-6: ‘The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. ’ It has been made clear that it is not the responsibility of the auditor to prepare or to maintain the clients’ accounts. The audit report is also required to contain a paragraph specifying the responsibilities of the auditors-The report should include a statement that the financial statements are the responsibility of the entity’s management and a statement that the responsibility of the auditor is to express an opinion on the financial statements based on the audit (BSA700).Therefore, it affects the expectation gap as from naive point of view the statement seems accurate. Assessment Point-7: ‘The auditor is unbiased and objective. ’ Paragraph 1. 1 of the Code of Professional Ethics (2001) states – A professional accountant should be fair and should not allow prejudice or bias, conflict of interest or influence of others to override objectivity. Therefore, a society should reasonably expect the auditor to be unbiased objectivity. Assessment Point-8: ‘Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misst atement in financial statements. The primary objective of audit is to draw a conclusion on the fairness of the Financial Statements. The secondary objective is to detect errors and frauds. (BSA 200) The objective of an audit of financial statements is to enable the auditor to express an opinion as to whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an applicable financial reporting framework. The form the audit conclusion takes is that auditors state whether the financial statement give a true and fair view. This is an expression of reasonable assurance. ICAB Manual) BSA 200, specifying the objectives of audit clearly mentions that the auditors only provide reasonable assurance and not absolute assurance regarding the absence of material misstatements. Assessment point 9: ‘The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. ’ When the auditors express an opinion, they only guarantee the absence of material misstatements and the conformance with accepted accounting practices. However, this is not an assurance regarding the future or current performance of the entity.As stated in BSA 200 Although the auditor’s opinion enhances the credibility of the financial statements, the user cannot assume that the opinion is an assurance as to the future viability of the entity nor the efficiency or effectiveness with which management has conducted the affairs of the entity. Assessment point 10: ‘The auditor agrees with the accounting policies of the entity. ’ As auditors provide opinion regarding true and fair representation of financial statements and therefore issue four types of audit report-(i) Standard unqualified Audit Report (ii) unqualified Audit Report (iii)Adverse Audit Report and (iv) No Report.In first and second cases the auditors agree with the accounting policies of the entity. Assessment point-11: ‘What do you expect from audit report? ’ Na ive (general) investors expect:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Professional under level i and level ii expect :†¦. Findings of the study: Table-1: Responses of naive (general) investors. Assessment pointsReasonableness scoreMeanDeviation 1. An auditor is a watchdog, not a bloodhound. 7. 002. 724. 28 2. Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 7. 004. 442. 56 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. . 004. 122. 88 4. Auditing exists only because of legal binding. 7. 006. 030. 97 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control7. 005. 361. 64 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. 7. 005. 571. 43 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 7. 005. 681. 32 8. Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misstatements in financial statements. 7. 005. 231. 77 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 7. 006. 800. 20 10.The auditor agrees with the account ing policies of the entity. 7. 004. 392. 61 The table shows significant difference in the assessment point no: 1, 2,3,10. It reveals that naive investors seek or do believe auditor makes way for their decisions, i ,e; the general investors rely much on the auditors’ decision not critically analyzing the opinion but from a naive point of view. Table 2: Responses of Students not completing any audit course. Assessment pointsReasonableness scoreMeanDeviation 1. An auditor is a watchdog not a bloodhound. 7. 004. 092. 91 2.Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 7. 003. 193. 81 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. 7. 004. 922. 08 4. Auditing exists only because of legal binding. 7. 003. 773. 33 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control7. 005. 661. 44 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. 7. 006. 570. 43 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 7. 003. 923. 08 8. Auditor should provide absolute assura nce about the material misstatements in financial statements. . 002. 414. 59 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 7. 004. 492. 51 10. The auditor agrees with the accounting policies of the entity. 7. 004. 042. 96 The table shows that statistically significant differences exist from the view point of students having no audit idea in terms of the assessment point no: 2,3,4,8. It indicates that they expect unreasonably from the auditors regarding their responsibilities of detecting and preventing all frauds and also auditors’ agreement with the entity’s accounting policies.Table 3: Responses of Students completing two (2) courses (Audits III). Assessment pointsReasonableness scoreMeanDeviation 1. An auditor is a watchdog not a bloodhound. 7. 005. 641. 36 2. Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 7. 004. 982. 02 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. 7. 003. 873. 13 4. Auditing exists only b ecause of legal binding. 7. 005. 111. 89 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control7. 004. 892. 11 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. . 006. 010. 99 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 7. 004. 922. 08 8. Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misstatements in financial statements. 7. 004. 592. 41 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 7. 002. 594. 41 10. The auditor agrees with the accounting policies of the entity. 7. 005. 581. 42 Table 3 presents the study results out of students who completed two audit courses. Significant gap was found in the point that audit report provides prediction of future performances of any entity.Again in detecting and preventing all fraud of any entity. In respect of some of the six audit threats, the auditors’ objectivity and neutrality was questioned resulting in some expectation gap. Table 4: Responses of Articled students either level I or level II. Assessment pointsReasonableness scoreMeanDeviation 1. An auditor is a watchdog not a bloodhound. 7. 006. 810. 19 2. Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 7. 006. 800. 20 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. 7. 002. 024. 98 4. Auditing exists only because of legal binding. . 005. 241. 76 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control7. 005. 911. 09 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. 7. 000. 896. 11 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 7. 006. 870. 13 8. Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misstatements in financial statements. 7. 001. 315. 69 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 7. 004. 812. 19 10. The auditor agrees with the accounting policies of the entity. 7. 002. 114. 89The table shows the survey results from professional students who are from level I and level II of professional accountancy. He re the respondents were in line to set a expectation ceiling. Table -5: Showing the deviations between four respondent groups. Assessment pointsDeviation Table-1Deviation Table-2Deviation Table-3Deviation Table-4 1. An auditor is a watchdog not a bloodhound. 4. 282. 911. 360. 19 2. Auditor is responsible for audit failure, not for audit risk. 2. 563. 812. 020. 20 3. Auditor is responsible for detecting all fraud. 2. 882. 083. 134. 98 4. Auditing exists only because of legal binding. . 973. 331. 891. 76 5. The auditor is responsible for soundness in internal control1. 641. 442. 111. 09 6. The auditor is liable for maintaining accounting records. 1. 430. 430. 996. 11 7. The auditor is unbiased and objective. 1. 323. 082. 080. 13 8. Auditor should provide absolute assurance about the material misstatements in financial statements. 1. 774. 592. 415. 69 9. The audit report provides assurance about the entity’s future performance. 0. 202. 514. 412. 19 10. The auditor agrees with th e accounting policies of the entity. 2. 612. 961. 424. 89We the group ‘CRYSTAL HEART’ conducted this study to address whether the perpetual audit expectation gap between the auditors and the users of financial statements is reasonable and how audit knowledge provided by Dept. of Accounting and Information Systems of University of Dhaka affected this gap. The study were mainly concentrated on identifying audit expectation gap in the areas of audit liability of the auditors, audit reliability from the viewpoint of naive (general) investors, students who have no audit knowledge or have taken at least two audit courses and professionals and materiality of audit report to them.The study revealed the presence of audit expectation gap in Bangladesh. In the area of auditors’ responsibilities the naive (general) investors putting the audit knowledge less students second in row expected much more i,e; unreasonably out of the auditors. The professionals’ responses in dicated their responsibilities were defined in different standards. Another area of this study regarding audit reliability showed a wide gap from each of the four (4) respondent groups. As the auditors work on sampling base, and audit risk is subject to well-organized fraud from the past if the management.Also self-interest threat, review threats are still considerable, the gap in the sense of reliability comprised of a big portion. The other sector of the survey- audit report’s materiality revealed that the decision makers out of the society did not depend much on audit report i,e; the majority portion lacks analysis ability who constitute the expectation floor much away from the ceiling set by the audit assurance providers. Although almost significant portion of respondent considered audit report’s materiality contributing to widen the gap.We also found knowledge on auditing helps in some regard but not to the extent that professionals considered. Conclusion: The stu dy attempted on addressing audit expectation gap in Bangladesh. Further, it assessed whether and how much knowledge on the concerned field affects this gap. The students of University of Dhaka under Dept. of Accounting Information Systems and students under ICAB were proxied on behalf of the users, on the presumption that they are most knowledgeable among the society.The findings of the study reveals the existence of expectation gap, some how it is wider in some aspects and predict a much more gap in terms of the people of the society. It also indicated that so far the students go away from their courses they merge gradually with the general people that predict future expectation gap to be wider. So, future studies should concentrate on clarifying the riskiness of audit by identifying clear sectors of audit expectation gap.

Aztec Assignment Essay Example

Aztec Assignment Essay Example Aztec Assignment Essay Aztec Assignment Essay Introduction My role in the Aztec community is to sacrifice for the sun god (Huitzilopochtli) so that he may bring prosperity life to our people. We sacrifice to our gods as they did when they sacrificed themselves to bring us here, in a way we are repaying our debt to the heavens. I am a priest of the city of gold and this is my life.. -Day 34: It was the day of sacrifice our warriors had captured people from a native tribe nearby. We had been preparing for this following days for almost a year now as it was the 52nd year the year of eternal sacrifice. We started off with a preparation sacrifice which consisted of one helpless child†¦ ‘As he climbed the temple stairs he was whimpering and quivering the whole way up. As he gets to the top and lies down on his back, my men grab a hold of him as tight as the sacred cobra. He gazes over to me in despair I could almost taste the fear I pulled out my sacrificial knife and healed it over my head and drove it into his chest. I then pulled out his heart†¦ still beating in the sunlight. I put it up to the sky while my men tossed his body down towards the raging crowd. The pool of blood ran down the stairs which seemed to please the awaiting peasants down below. After my sacrifices were complete the celebrations had only just begun which would later continue till dawn. ’ -Day 35: The morning had arrived and I could still smell the ever lingering blood in the air. The night came we prepared as it was the day before the eternal sacrifice. When the evening star reached the top of the sky we stretched the captive over the alter, lit a fire on his heart inside his chest, then cut it out and held it up to the sky. I then placed the heart in a bowl of sacrifice which held the heart for tomorrow. Later that night the celebrations continued but the fear of the ending of the universe was still held in our people’s minds. -Day 36 As morning arose the thought occurred to me of what could happen on this very day.. The prediction was of this year that our saviour would return to these lands claim our city as his own. If we did not please our gods then the prediction would alter in a way that would lead to the destruction of our lands. The day had started with offerings and ritual dances to the gods, but the night had held for something much different. As the night came I started my preparations by changing into my ceremonial robes meeting with the sacrificial victim. The man chose himself to be sacrificed as it had brought him a full year of beautiful women wealth at the cost of death. I walked to the top of the temple while eagerly awaiting the sacrifice. I could tell the crowds where getting nervous as the chants had turned silent. The order was given to distinguish every fire within the city and it was followed by the victim being brought up. I drew the blade from its sachet holding it towards the moonlight. As I started the chant of the gods the chose victim began to startle and shake, getting closer and closer to the edge of the table. He leapt from his position, somehow avoiding the guards ran down the temple stairs, only to meet a swift death from the crowds down below. The people had not realised that they had just killed our only prepared sacrificial victim†¦ Now we waited†¦ until the sun would arise (which meant that our kingdom would be safe for another 52 years). We waited but hour after hour the crowds got more worried as they eagerly awaited our salvation. The worst prediction had come true and the sun never arose, only to be replaced with dull clouds and rain. That was it†¦ it had meant the end of the world for our people. However I would not lose hope in our gods and proclaimed to the people that the gods where satisfied. I lied, but only to protect our people. -Day 37 The morning arrived and I went into town to see how our people had taken the recent series of events. No one seemed to be scared of worried. I on the other hand was very wary of what was going to happened and I had not forgotten that we had failed to please the gods. I had given my peoples false hope and led them to believe that we would continue to prosper and live undisturbed for another 52 years. As I had said blasphemy, I was forced to remove my own ear in repayment to the gods. Ironically tho this did not seem to make me forget about our cities inevitable destruction. -Day 38 Today while walking through the markets of Tenochtitlan I noticed a strange man who must have been an outsider visiting the city. He was a light skinned man with a broad rimmed hat, with feathers protruding from the brim. Something however was different about this man, yet I could not seem to put my finger on it. [ PAGES MISSING†¦ ] -Day 43 They came through our city with spears that shone in the light.. They rode upon large beasts weld batons made from something harder than rock. I watched my people die at my feet The terror of these invaders had caused chaos within the city walls†¦ These people came because of me. I have failed my people†¦ and I have failed the gods. My name is Tianozomo I am a rightful servant to my leader Montezuma. They’re coming to me now , as for all my people†¦ please forgive me for what I have done.

Paul Berg and the Asilomar Conference Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Paul Berg and the Asilomar Conference - Essay Example "Many scientists worried that hybrid molecules from recombinant DNA experiments could result in dangerous new organisms that could pose a threat to public health. Others were deeply concerned about ethical issues related to genetic engineering, especially as it might be applied to humans." (Photographs from Asilomar). This chaotic situation led the National Academy of Sciences to ask Paul Berg to head a committee that "in July 1974 took the unusual move of calling for a voluntary moratorium on certain types of recombinant DNA experiments until the hazards could be evaluated." (Barinaga). Seven months later, Berg organized the International Congress on Recombinant DNA Molecules, which was held in February 1975 at the Asilomar Conference Center in Pacific Grove, California. In an essay posted by Paul Berg at the Nobel Prize Organization website in 2004, he revisits the recombinant DNA controversies of the 1970's, the 1975 Asilomar Conference and 30 years later. Looking back, Berg explains and justifies the voluntary moratorium which scientists universally imposed on themselves regarding certain recombinant DNA experiments. ... rg became the 1975 Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA Molecules and one of its aims "was to consider whether to lift the voluntary moratorium and, if so, under what conditions the research could proceed safely", according to Berg. At the conclusion of the conference, consensus was for recombinant DNA research to proceed but under strict guidelines. Berg supports this conclusion. He mentions that hundreds of millions of experiments have been conducted since 1975 with "no documented hazard to public health attributable to the applications of recombinant DNA technology. Moreover, the concern of some that moving DNA among species would breach customary breeding barriers and have profound effects on natural evolutionary processes has substantially disappeared as the science revealed that such exchanges occur in nature." He also mentions, that in support of the resolutions of the conference, immediately after, in 1976, the Guidelines for Research Involving Recombinant DNA Molecules wer e promulgated by the National Institutes of Health and by comparable bodies in other countries. Despite Paul Berg's support of both the moratorium and the successful conclusion of the Asilomar Conference, he has strong reservations regarding resurrecting the Asilomar model for the resolution of "hot button issues confronting scientists and the public today". He compares the environment of 30 years ago, which worked for the success of the 1975 Asilomar Conference versus the present scenario. He believes, "an Asilomar type conference trying to contend with contentious views is doomed to acrimony and policy stagnation." Although I agree with the points Berg raised against convening an Asilomar type conference in the present day, I believe that communication, dialogue, exhaustive discussion

Modern Political Ideologies Seminar Journal Essay

Modern Political Ideologies Seminar Journal - Essay Example During the interwar period, which is considered to be a not so positive time for Conservatism in Britain, the ideology has been seen as inclined towards the defense of class privileges and of the status quo, a negative opposition to Socialism, and a interest centers commercialist approach to the rising Nazi menace in the 1030s (Fair, 1987, p. 549). The difference between conservative ideology and ideational ideologies has led to non conservatives to deny any intellectual content to conservatism which led to conservatives attacking all the other ideologies. In Huntington’s view, both parties are wrong because they have minimized its intellectual significance. He explained that the conservative ideology as an intellectual rationale of the permanent prerequisites of human existence (Huntington, 1957, p. 168). It has a high and necessary function. As a case in point, when a society is under threat, the conservatism acts as a reminder to men of the necessity of some institutions and the desirability of the existing ones. As he had said, conservative ideology is not the absence of change; rather, it is the articulate, systematic, theoretical resistance to change (Huntington, 1957, p. 168). The term conservative ideology is different from one society to the other. For one, the aristocrats are the conservatives in Prussia in the 1820s; slave-owners are the conservatives in the South in the early 1850s while the liberals are considered the conservatives in America and other parts of the world. As seen in history, American liberals have been idealist, lobbying goals of greater freedom, social equality, and more meaningful democracy. Conservatism can also be seen as shaping mechanism of events rather than merely reactionary as can be seen in Disraeli’s foreign policy wherein it focused on the necessity for Britain to act constructively as a moderating and mediating power and to maintain its interest in the whole empire (Rayner 1995, p.

Nutritional Considerations in Geriatric Care

Nutritional Considerations in Geriatric Care Title of the Topic: Nutritional Considerations in Geriatrics Running Title: Geriatric Nutrition List of Cotributors: Dr.Veena B. Benakatti, Post Graduate student, Department of Prosthodontics, KLEVK Institute of Dental Sciences, KLE University Belagavi Dr.Raghunath Patil, Professor and Head, Department of Prosthodontics, KLEVK Institute of Dental Sciences, KLE University Belagavi Dr Ulhas N Amasi , Professor, Department of Prosthodontics, KLEVK Institute of Dental Sciences, KLE University Belagavi Dr Veena Benakatti1, Dr Raghunanth Patil2, Dr Ulhas N Amasi3 Department of Prosthodontics, KLEVK Institute of Dental Sciences, KLE University Belgavi. Abstract: Human beings need a wide range of nutrients to lead a healthy and active life. The nutrients required for different physiological age groups can be derived only from a well balanced diet. One of the major challenges for the success of health sciences in present scenario is increasing elderly population in the society. Nutritional deficiency, particularly of proteins is very common in elderly people. Over 60% of elderly people are malnourished, and there are many causes for this malnutrition and it is not always easy to differentiate the age related from the pathological. We always need to remind the phrase that it is of great importance to add life to years and not years to life. Here is an article reviewing the basics of nutrition in elderly people and role of prosthodontist in the same. Key words: Diet Counseling, Geriatrics, Healthy, Nutrition, Prosthodontist, Recommended Dietary Allowance. Introduction Nutrition is the basic human need and a prerequisite for healthy life. A well proportionate diet is essential from the very early stages of life for proper growth, development and maintatinance of normal body functioning, physical activity and, health.1 The three basic prerequisites to sustain life are air, water, and food. Human being is supposed to consume air, water and food in pure and naturally occurring condition. However, assuming air and water is being consumed in pure form, food is the basic requisite for healthy life which is in control of human being but still the one most neglected. The overall improvement in economy at the macro level and subsequent improvements in purchasing power (though unevenly distributed) among households have not resulted in the expected levels of improvement in the nutritional status of Indians mainly because of ignorance. The major food issues of concern are insufficient and imbalanced intake of nutrients.1 One of the major challenges in field of health sciences is the increasing number of geriatric population in the society. Also, it is expected that by 2050, 20% of the total geriatric population of the world would be in India.2 Nutritional deficiencies particularly concerning protein is very common in elderly. Over 60% of elderly people are malnourished, and many causes may be traced for this malnutrition and it is not always easy to differentiate the age related factors from the pathological.3 We need to always remember the phrase that it is of great importance to add life to years and not years to life.2 Nutritional needs of the elderly Nutrition in geriatrics needs a special attention considering factors that affect nutritional status of an aging individual. Physiological changes that occur with age, like Body composition (Annual decline in lean body mass of 1-2% and decline in extracellular water) reduced and impaired organ function, therapeutic drugs affect nutritional status of elderly people. Apart from these, Emotional problems, Insufficient funds, inability to shop and food preparation problems, adherence to specific diet, alcohol, above all the individuals’ taste play a more important role for the selection of food than does the availability of nurients.4 The main sources of energy in Indian diets, which are mainly plant food based, are Carbohydrates, Fat, Protein considered to be macronutrients. Other nutrients are Vitamins and minerals, which are considered as micronutrients. The required nutrients for different physiological groups can only be derived from a well balanced diet.1 Water Water accounts for 70% of total human body weight. It is a constituent of blood and other vital body fluids. A normal healthy person will require 8 glasses (2 liters) of water per day. During very hot weather and when undertaking vigorous physical activity, the requirement of water increases as a considerable amount of water is lost through sweat. Water should be free from disease-causing agents like bacteria, viruses, parasites etc., and harmful chemical substances like pesticides, industrial wastes, and heavy metals, nitrates, arsenic and excess of fluoride. Boiling for 10-15 minutes is a satisfactory method of purifying the water. Tablets containing 0.5 g of chlorine can disinfect 20 liters of water.1 Energy Body needs energy, to maintain body temperature, metabolic activity and for supporting physical work and growth. The main source of energy in the Indian diet is carbohydrates which derived largely from cereals. These cereals constitute 80% of our diet and provide 50-80% of daily energy intake. Elderly Men need 46kcal/kg/day (average 2730kcal/kg/day). Elderly Women need 41kcal/kg/day (average 2230kcal/kg/day).1 Carbohydrates Carbohydrates provide energy of 4 Kcal/g (Table 1). The simple carbohydrates, glucose and fructose, are found in fruits, vegetables and honey, sucrose in sugar and lactose in milk, while the complex polysaccharides are starches in cereals, millets, pulses and root vegetables and glycogen in animal foods. The elderly consume a large proportion of their calories as carbohydrates, possibly at the expense of other nutrients like protein, because of their low cost, ability to be stored without refrigeration and ease of preparation. Denture patients preferring soft foods high in simple sugars fat should be advised importance of complex carbohydrates. Fiber component of complex carbohydrates promotes bowel function, lowers glycemic response, reduce serum cholesterol prevents diverticular disease. Most of the fruits and vegetables (except potatoes, watermelon, sweet corn) whole grains, beans, lentils are low glycemic index foods.1 Proteins Dietary proteins should provide eight essential amino acids in a proper proportion and in adequate quantities to synthesize tissue proteins in the body. Particularly Egg protein is used as a reference protein against which the quality of other proteins can be considered. Vegetable proteins, like cereals, legumes and vegetables are of poorer quality than animal proteins. Cereal proteins are generally deficient in lysine and pulses or legume proteins deficient in methionine. However, when both cereal and pulses (legumes) are consumed in the diet in proper proportions, the proteins from these two sources will supplement each other and overcome each other‘s deficiencies in lysine or methionine to a significant extent. Daily requirement of protein is .8g/kg body wt (60g for males 55g for females per day).1 Fat The maximum amount of fat that can be consumed in the diet should not exceed 30 %E (about 60g visible fat / day). Fat intake if exceeds 35% E may increase the risk of diet related non communicable diseases and should be avoided. However, daily fat intake in the diet can be between 20-30%E (20- 40 g/day). Low fat milk and dairy foods should be consumed. Processed, premixed, ready to eat and fast foods should be avoided. Beef and mutton should be consumed moderately. Use of butter/Ghee should be limited. Intake of saturated fat (butter, ghee and hydrogenated fats) and cholesterol (red meat, eggs, organ meat) should be restricted. Excess of these substances could lead to obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer. Use palm oil, sesame, rice bran, or cotton seed oils as they have higher thermal stability. For bakery items use coconut oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil or their blends/solid fractions.1 Dietary fiber Dietary fiber is the remnants of the edible part of plants and is similar to carbohydrates which are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the human large intestine. Dietary fiber includes polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, lignin and associated plant products. Dietary fiber exhibits one or more of either laxation (fecal bulking and softening; increased frequency; regularity), blood cholesterol attenuation, blood glucose attenuation. Animal foods do not contain fiber. Cereals, seeds, beans, many fruits and vegetables, bran and whole grain are sources of fiber. In Indian scenario fiber deficiency is rare as it is consumed adequately in daily Indian foods. However, a minimum intake of 20-35 g of fiber is recommended for long-term good health.1 Minerals Minerals are calorie free and essential nutrients which regulate many biological functions. Minerals such as iron, zinc and copper aids in collagen formation, Wound healing, and regulate inflammation.5 Calcium and Phosphorous Average need of calcium over 60yrs is 1500mg daily, and of phosphorous 1gm/day. Elemental Ca:P ratio of 1:1 has to be maintained. Sources include Milk and milk products, Egg, Meat, Fish, millet ragi, Green Leafy Vegetables. Milk is Rich source of bioavailable calcium. Milk fat serves as a vehicle for fat-soluble vitamins A, D and E. Since milk fat is of the saturated type, those who need to be on a low fat diet can consume skimmed/toned milk. For strict vegetarians, milk is the only source of vitamin B12. Milk is also rich in riboflavin. Only pasteurized or boiled milk should be consumed to ensure protection from disease-causing agents. Osteoporosis is the most common disease affecting aging person and postmenopausal women resulting from calcium deficiency.1 Iron, Zinc, Sodium, Magnesium and Potassium – (Table No 2) Vitamins These are essential organic and calorie free molecules necessary for human body. They are further classified as fat soluble and water soluble vitamins.5 (Table No 3) As a person grows older, he tends to become physiologically less active and therefore need lesser calories to maintain their weights. The daily intake of oil should not exceed 20 g. Use of ghee, butter, and coconut oil should be avoided. They need foods rich in protein such as pulses, toned milk, egg-white etc. Therefore, the elderly need nutrient-rich foods rich in calcium, micro-nutrients and fiber. Apart from cereals and pulses, they need daily at least 200-300 ml of milk and milk products and 400 g of vegetables and fruits to provide fiber, micro-nutrients and antioxidants. Inclusion of these items in the diet improves the quality of the diet and bowel function. Flesh foods and eggs add to the quality of diet. The diet needs to be well cooked, soft and less salty and spicy. Small quantities of food should be consumed at more frequent intervals and adequate water should be consumed to avoid dehydration hyponatraemia. 6 Food preparation Fermentation and germination (sprouting) are common Indian food practices which definitely improve digestibility and increase nutrients such as B-complex vitamins and vitamin C. Repeated washing of food grains like rice and pulses will lead to loss of minerals and vitamins. Cutting vegetables into smaller pieces will expose a greater surface area of the foodstuff to the atmosphere, resulting in loss of nutrients like vitamins due to oxidation. Cut vegetables should not be soaked in water for longer time, as water-soluble minerals and vitamins will get dissolved. Boiling being the most common method of cooking, will lead to loss of heat-labile and water-soluble vitamins like vitamins B-complex and C. excess water should not be used while cooking rice. Shallow frying uses much smaller amounts of oils than deep frying. Repeated heating of oils particularly PUFA-rich oils results in formation of peroxides and free radicals and, thus, should be avoided. Oils which have been repeatedly hea ted should not to be mixed with fresh oil. Microwave do not cook uniformly and leave some cold spots in the food by which harmful bacteria can enter into body, avoid large amounts and big pieces in the microwave oven otherwise mix the food in between for uniform heating or cooking.6 Natural fruit juices provide energy, vitamins (beta carotenes, vitamin C) and minerals (potassium, calcium). Fruit juices are potassium rich and are ideal for hypertension. Compared to natural fruit juices, synthetic drinks do not contain nutrients. Tea and coffee although relieve mental and muscular fatigue should be avoided at least one hour before and after meals due to presence of tannin that interfere with absorption of iron. Coffee known to increase Blood Pressure and abnormalities in heart beat, excess tea coffee is harmful to health as they contain caffeine. Decaffeinated coffee and tea can be consumed which are being marketed to obviate the adverse effects of caffeine.6 Role of Prosthodontist Teeth are not a prerequisite in healthy individuals for proper digestion. However edentulous subjects with poor masticatory function consume more medications than those with better masticatory function for their digestive problems. Impaired masticatory function may lead to adhesion to specific diet and an unbalanced diet in elderly individuals. Apart from masticatory efficiency several other oral conditions like painful mucosal disorders, oral dryness may also lead to nutritional problems.3 Adequate nutrition plays a vital role in maintaining health of aging oral tissues which in turn is going to influence the prognosis of prosthesis6. An adequate dentition either natural or artificial is not always essential for sufficient food intake for maintaining balanced nutrition in normal health, but is necessary to support extra demands of illness aging. Prosthodontist is in a strategic position to evaluate correct nutritional deficiencies that promote premature aging of oral tissues by providing a functional prosthesis. A prosthodontist need to understand aging patient his requirements provide prosthetic treatment to meet his demands helping him towards optimal health a happier life. Quality of denture wearing patient can definitely be improved by diet counseling. Creating nutrition awareness referral to physician or dietitian when required is of utmost importance. A careful screening, diet evaluation and regular follow ups will help to identify nutritional risk deal with it. Objective of diet counseling is to correct imbalance in nutrition that interfere with body as well as oral health.7 Older people with dry mouth are likely to prefer foods that are high in fats, oils and sugars due to ease of chewing and swallowing. Older people with altered taste and smell may consume more sugars as a way of making food palatable. Some people may not consume some foods that are good sources of dietary fiber due to problems with their teeth or dentures. For those with dry mouth, encourage frequent sipping of non-sugared, low acidic drinks such as water. The intake of sugar-containing medications should be limited. Ask the doctor for alternatives for the person in your care. Prepare chopped up vegetables or mashed vegetables for them. Avoid giving them stringy foods. Provide small bite-sized portions of fruit. Conclusion The geriatric population being a very important asset for our society, their experience and guidance in real life is indispensible. As a Prosthodontist, if we think what we can give back to the society? One of the answers could be obtaining detailed knowledge of diet and nutrition and guiding our patients during our long and repeated appointments. This way, Prosthodontist can bang a correct balance between profession and their responsibility towards society at a large and attain professional happiness.2The concluding principle is that proper nutrition is an important aid in preventive medicine in geriatric people in which the practicing Prosthodontist can play a vital role. References Recommended Dietary Allowances For Indians, Report Of Expert Group Of Indian Council Of Medical Research, National Institute Of Nutrition, Hyderabad. Palaskar J. Diet nutrition in geriatric patients- A matter of concern. J Dent Allied Sci 2012; 1(2):44. Philippie Mojon, Ejvind Budtz-Jorgensen, Charles-Henri Rrapin. Relationship between oral health and nutrition in very old people. Age and ageing 1999; 28:463-68 Nancy G sebring, Albert D Gluckes, Shou Hua, Mccarthy. Nutritional adequacy of reported intake of edentulous subjects treated with new conventional or implant-supported mandibular dentures. J Prosthet Dent oct 1995; 74(4):358-63 Snehal Sonarkar, Rucheet Purba, Shishir Singh, Rajesh Podar. â€Å"Components of diet and it relation to dental caries: A review†. Int J Contemp Dent Med Rev 2014 Dietary guidelines for Indians, National Institute Of Nutrition 2010 Zarb, Hobkirk, Eckert, Jacob. Prosthodontic Treatment for Edentulous Patients, 13th Ed. New Delhi, Mosby, Elsevier, 2013;28-33 Sheldon Winkler. Essentials of Complete Denture Prosthodontics, 2nd Ed. New Delhi, AITBS publishers, 2012,15-20 List of Tables: Table 1 Amount of energy derived from various macronutrients.1 Table 2 Recommended Daily Allowance and sources of micronutrients.1 Table 3 Recommended Daily Allowance and sources of vitamins.1 Table 1: Amount of energy derived from various macronutrients.1 Table 2: Recommended Daily Allowance and sources of micronutrients.1 Table 3: Recommended Daily Allowance and sources of vitamins.1